Five periods have been identified, dominated by wood, peat, wind, fossil fuels, and modern renewables, respectively. During each period, the landscape coevolved with the new energy source hosting new energy infrastructure. The sequence of landscape transformations over the past 10 centuries in the Western Netherlands is illustrated by means of historical paintings, photographs and a series of five georeferenced maps. Our systematic analysis confirms the long-lasting and manifold interrelations between energy development and landscape transformation at the brink of another energy transition. This paper presents the first all-encompassing application of the analytical framework for the study of energy landscapes proposed earlier. The three main qualifications—substantive, spatial, and temporal—provided a clear framework for the systematic study of landscape transformations at the regional scale.
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Evolution of Energy Landscapes
While the transition to renewable energy becomes a main driver of landscape change, few publications discuss the historical transformation of landscapes for the development of energy—commonly referred to as energy landscape. The research reported in this paper investigates the evolution of energy landscapes in the Western Netherlands—a region shaped by peat extraction and dotted with windmills.
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Practices in transition
Voor de transitie naar hernieuwbare energie is ruimte nodig (Sijmons et al., 2014) en op veel plekken leidt deze transitie al tot veranderende landschappen (Pasqualetti & Stremke, 2018). Landschapsarchitectuur – gericht op het ontwerpen, plannen en beheren van landschappen – kan als vakgebied een centrale rol spelen in de energietransitie (zie bijv. Sijmons et al., 2017). Steeds meer landschapsarchitecten beginnen dan ook hernieuwbare energie in hun projecten te betrekken. In dit artikel geven we een overzicht van de bijdrage van landschapsarchitecten aan de energietransitie en bespreken deze aan de hand van de situatie in Nederland en Frankrijk.
Roberta Pistoni en Sven Stremke (2019)Landschapsarchitecten krijgen steeds vaker de vraag om bij te dragen aan de energietransitie en hernieuwbare energie duurzaam en esthetisch in te passen in de 'levende omgeving’. Daarbij dragen (academische) landschapsarchitecten met wetenschappelijke kennis bij aan de planning en het ontwerp van energielandschappen (zie bijvoorbeeld De Waal et al., 2015). In dit artikel geven we een overzicht van de bijdrage van landschapsarchitecten aan de energietransitie in Nederland en Frankrijk en vergelijken deze. Deze twee landen hebben wij gekozen omdat beiden over willen stappen van fossiele brandstoffen naar hernieuwbare energie en hun energieconsumptie willen verminderen (LETCV, 2015; Klimaatakkoord, 2019). Daarbij hebben beide landen een langdurige maar verschillende traditie als het gaat om landschapsarchitectuur: de Franse landschapsarchitectuur was van oudsher gericht op het ontwerpen van tuinen en parken, terwijl Nederlandse landschapsarchitecten al decennialang deelnemen aan regionale en ruimtelijke planning. De twee landen hebben ook verschillende landschapsculturen. Het Franse ‘paysage’ wordt van oudsher geassocieerd met behoud van natuur en erfgoed. In het Nederlandse ‘landschap’, met zijn veel hogere bevolkingsdichtheid, bestaan twee verschillende benaderingen naast elkaar: behoud van natuur en erfgoed enerzijds en ruimtelijke planning en ontwerp anderzijds (Luginbuhl, 2012).
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The ecosystem services concept
Several case studies investigated the role of ecosystem services in participatory planning processes. However, no systematic study exists that cuts across a large number of empirical cases to identify the implications of using ecosystem services in participatory planning. This study explores the potential of the ecosystemservices concept to act as a boundary concept (‘‘new Esperanto’’) to facilitate the integration of actors’ perceptions and objectives into planning goals. We analyzed eleven case studies to explore how the ecosystem services concept has been operationalized to support participatory planning processes, and to identify lessons from successful applications. We characterized the case studies according to contextual and methodological criteria. Each case study was assessed through a codified score card method in order to detect success or failure criteria in using the ecosystem services concept in participatory planning. We compared the case study criteria with the results of the balanced score card method. We identified several positive effects of applying the ecosystem services concept in participatory planning, including the facilitation of knowledge sharing and consideration of local experiences, the support towards a shared vision, and the increased awareness among local actors concerning their role as ecosystem services suppliers or beneficiaries. Among the drawbacks, we identified the risk of overemphasizing specific ecosystem goods or services during the process. We conclude by providing some recommendations to enhance future practice related to issues such as communication, use of local knowledge and integration of ecosystem services in existing legal instruments.
Marcin Spyra, Janina Kleemann, Nuket Ipek Cetin, Cesar Jesus Vazquez Navarrete, Christian Albert, Igone Palacios-Agundez, Ibone Ametzaga-Arregi, Daniele La Rosa, Daniel Rozas-Vasquez, Blal Adem Esmail, Paolo Picchi, Davide Geneletti, Hannes J. Konig, HongMi Koo, Leena Kopperoinen, Christine Furst (2018)
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Can urban metabolism models advance green infrastructure planning?
Urban metabolism studies have gained momentum in recent years as a means to assess the environmental performance of cities and to point to more resource-efficient strategies for urban development. Recent literature reviews report a growing number of applications of the industrial ecology model for material flow analysis in the design of the built environment. However, applications of material flow analysis in green infrastructure development are scarce. In this article, we argue that: (i) the use of material flow analysis in green infrastructure practice can inform decision-making towards more resource-efficient urban planning; (ii) the ecosystem service concept is critical to operationalize material flow analysis for green infrastructure planning and design, and, through this, can enhance the impact of urban metabolism research on policy making and planning practice. The article draws from a systematic review of literature on urban ecosystem services and benefits provided by green infrastructure in urban regions. The review focuses on ecosystem services that can contribute to a more energy-efficient and less carbon-intensive urban metabolism. Using the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services as a baseline, we then discuss opportunities for integrating energy provision and climate regulation ecosystem services in material flow analysis. Our discussion demonstrates that the accounting of ecosystem services in material flow analysis enables expressing impacts of green infrastructure on the urban energy mix (renewable energy provision), the magnitude of energy use (mitigation of building energy demand) and the dynamics of biogeochemical processes in cities (carbon sequestration). We finally propose an expanded model for material flow analysis that illustrates a way forward to integrate the ecosystem service concept in urban metabolism models and to enable their application in green infrastructure planning and design.
Daniela Perrotti and Sven Stremke (2018)
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Ruimte in het Klimaatakkoord
Ruimtelijk experts zijn vanaf het begin bij alle tafels betrokken. Met reden; het Klimaatakkoord komt neer op één van de grootste opgaven voor de ruimtelijke ordening van de komende decennia. De impact van de transitie op de fysieke leefomgeving is groot. Een duurzaam energiesysteem vergt meer ruimte dan een fossiel systeem, en er zullen lange tijd verschillende systemen naast elkaar bestaan. Duurzame energie is ook zichtbaarder: steden en landschappen zullen er door de transitie anders uit gaan zien. En ook de maatregelen voor CO2 reductie in landbouw en landgebruik zijn zichtbaar in en hebben effect op onze omgeving. Dit betekent dat de transitie direct zichtbaar en voelbaar wordt in de leefomgeving van mensen. Een goede ruimtelijke ordening van de klimaat- en energietransitie is cruciaal, boven en onder de grond, op land en op zee. Enerzijds om de transitie vorm te geven op een ruimtelijk goede manier: in balans met andere belangen in de ruimte, rekening houdend met de kwaliteit van de leefomgeving, en
met draagvlak. En anderzijds ook om voldoende ruimte te vinden voor de transitie en deze te combineren met andere opgaven. Deze ruimte is in Nederland – waar iedere vierkante meter al een (of meerdere) bestemming(en) heeft – niet vanzelfsprekend. Een goede ruimtelijke aanpak van de transitie, inclusief het maken van (soms ingrijpende) ruimtelijke keuzes, is daarmee een noodzakelijke voorwaarde voor het behalen van de klimaatdoelstellingen.Boris Hocks, Lieselotte Tolks, Rens Wijnakker, Pim Kupers, Dirk Sijmons, Gerjan Streng, Thijs van Spaandonk, Bram Willemse, Marco Vermeulen, Andy van den Dobbelsteen, Taco Kuijers, Sven Stremke, Dirk Oudes (2018)
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Research through design for energy transition
The purpose of this paper is to enlarge the body of knowledge on research through design (RtD) methods that can be employed by landscape architects and others working on (but not limited to) sustainable energy transition. A specific approach to RtD – qualitative landscape structure analysis
(QLSA) – is introduced and illustrated by means of diagrams and photographs. Two case studies showcase the application of QLSA for research on solar parks in the Netherlands and research on wind turbines in the Alpine foothills in Southern Germany. The case studies show how RtD can help to define design principles for large solar parks and arrangement of wind turbines in particular landscape types in the Netherlands and Germany, respectively. In doing so, RtD can help to expand the breadth of spatial research beyond well-established methods such as multi-criteria decision analysis and environmental impact assessment. The paper provides insights into contemporary RtD in two countries and affirms the importance of such research with regard to landscape transformations while starting to define a research niche for landscape architects and other environmental designers working on the topic of sustainable energy transition.Sven Stremke and Sören Schöbel (2019)
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Spatial transition analysis
Climate change, depletion of fossil fuels, and economic concerns are among the main drivers of sustainable energy transition. Over the past decade, several regions with low population density have successfully transited towards renewable energy (for example Siena, Italy). In the Netherlands and other countries, more densely populated regions have drawn up ambitious targets for energy transition. Most of these transition targets lack empirical evidence with regard to spatio-technological feasibility. This lack of evidence may compromise energy transition if constraints are discovered posteriori and short-term milestones missed. To address this shortcoming, we propose an integrated approach. Spatial Transition Analysis (STA) can assist in defining spatially explicit and evidence-based targets for energy transition. STA combines quantitative modelling of energy potentials, qualitative spatial considerations for the siting of renewable energy technologies and comparative scenario development. The application of STA in a case-study (Parkstad Limburg, the Netherlands) revealed that the region has the potential to become energy neutral between 2035 and 2045. Examining and illustrating the different types of constraints as well as the possible choices between renewable energy technologies enabled stakeholders to start planning for energy transition and implementing first interventions. This shows that STA provides a solid framework to foster sustainable energy transition initiated by regional stakeholders and informed by local preferences.
Dirk Oudes and Sven Stremke (2018)
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Energy landscapes in a crowded world
One of the main drivers of landscape transformation has been our demand for energy. We refer to the results of such transformations as “energy landscapes”. This paper examines the definition of energy landscapes within a conceptual framework, proposes a classification of energy landscapes, and describes the key characteristics of energy landscapes that help to define an over-arching typology of origins and expressions. Our purpose is to inform scholarly discourse and practice with regard to energy policies, decision-making processes, legal frameworks and environmental designs. We exam the existing literature, provide a critical perspective using imagery from the USA and Europe, and combine the disciplinary perspectives of geography and landscape architecture. We propose three main characteristics that contribute to the development of a typology: (1) Substantive qualification: General types of energy landscapes distinguished by dominating energy source; (2) Spatial qualification: The appearance of energy landscapes, ranging from distinct spatial entities to less recognizable subsystems of the larger environment; and (3) Temporal qualification: The degree of permanence of energy landscape ranging from relatively dynamic to permanent. Addressing these and a growing number of associated questions will promote more thoughtful protection of the landscapes we inherit while paying closer attention to the relationships between ourselves and the landscapes that surround us.
M. Pasqualetti and S. Stremke (2017)
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Co-designing energy landscapes
Renewable energy initiatives face opposition by local citizens, nature managers and others due to concerns over tradeoffs between two groups of ecosystem services: provisioning (renewable energy supply) and cultural services (the right to the landscape) (Nadaï and van der Horst, 2010). In order for any energy landscape to be considered sustainable, interventions must not cause critical tradeoffs between the provision of renewable energy and the supply of other ecosystem services (Stremke, 2015). Participative design processes are a promising strategy for facilitating a sustainable energy transition, especially in communities seeking self-sufficiency (De Waal and Stremke, 2014; Picchi, 2015). In addition to conjoining quantitative research methods with qualitative design inquiry, Von Haaren et al. (2014, p. 67) stress that a design approach to planning has added values: ‘making invisible or hidden ecological processes “visible”; reconciling people with a “new” landscape, for instance with unaccustomed features such as wind turbines; or raising consciousness about land degradation problems’. Despite the increasing popularity of participatory approaches, only few inquiries include tradeoff analysis between the provision of renewable energy (RE) and other ecosystem services (ES).
Sven Stremke and Paolo Picchi (2017)